Prehistoric India: Stone Age, Chalcolithic and Iron Age Cultures

The period before the invention of writing is called prehistory, and our knowledge of it comes only from archaeology: tools, bones, paintings, pottery and burials. In India, the prehistoric story is divided into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age), Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age) and the Iron Age. The UPSC asks about the features of each age, the major sites and the firsts, such as the earliest evidence of agriculture or iron. This note explains each age in simple language, with tables and a revision plan. Remember that the dates are approximate and vary from region to region, because the cultures did not develop at the same time everywhere.

Why Prehistory Matters for the Exam

Prehistory is a favourite area in the Prelims because the facts are short and clear: a site, a state and a feature. It is also useful for the Mains, as questions on the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Vedic age start from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic base. The person who first discovered a Palaeolithic tool in India was Robert Bruce Foote, a British geologist, who found a stone hand-axe at Pallavaram near Chennai in 1863. Since then, thousands of sites have been found across the subcontinent.

The Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The Palaeolithic age is the longest part of human history, stretching from about two million years ago to about 10,000 BCE, and it belongs to the Pleistocene (Ice Age). People lived by hunting animals and gathering fruits, roots and nuts. They lived in caves, rock shelters and open camps and moved from place to place. They did not know agriculture, pottery or metal. They used tools of stone, wood and bone, and discovered the use of fire in the later part. The age is divided into three phases.

• Lower Palaeolithic: Large, heavy tools such as hand-axes, cleavers and choppers, made of quartzite. Sites: Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), Hunsgi (Karnataka), the Soan valley, and the Belan valley (Uttar Pradesh).
• Middle Palaeolithic: Smaller tools made on flakes, such as scrapers, borers and points.
• Upper Palaeolithic: Blades and burins, finer tools of bone, and the appearance of modern humans (Homo sapiens). Rock paintings began.

The rock shelters of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the most famous. They have thousands of paintings in red and white pigments showing hunting scenes, dances, animals and daily life. Bhimbetka was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.

The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

The Mesolithic age (about 10,000 to 6,000 BCE) came as the climate became warmer and drier at the end of the Ice Age. The special feature of this age is the use of microliths, very small stone tools, which were fixed on wooden or bone handles to make arrows, sickles and spears. The people still lived by hunting and gathering, but also by fishing and herding, and they began to domesticate animals, such as the dog, sheep and goat. Sites: Bagor in Rajasthan (one of the best evidences of animal rearing), Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, Langhnaj in Gujarat, and Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha in Uttar Pradesh, where human burials and a grave with several skeletons were found. The rock paintings of this age show a variety of subjects such as group hunts and festivals.

The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

The Neolithic age is called the age of the first revolution in human life, because people began agriculture and settled life. The famous British archaeologist V. Gordon Childe called it the Neolithic Revolution. The features are polished stone tools such as the celt or axe, the first handmade and later wheel-made pottery, the cultivation of wheat, barley and rice, the domestication of cattle, and the building of mud and thatch houses. The dates vary: in the north-west, it began before 7000 BCE, while in the south, it began around 3000 BCE.

The Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age)

The Chalcolithic cultures (about 3000 to 1000 BCE) used both stone and the first metal, copper, along with the stone tools. The people of these cultures lived in villages, grew wheat, barley, rice, lentils and cotton in some places, and kept cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. They used painted pottery, often with black-on-red designs, and made beads of semi-precious stones. They did not know iron and the plough with iron share, and the productive capacity was limited, which is why the settlements remained small, and many babies died: at Inamgaon, children were buried under the house floor with their legs folded, while the adults were buried in an extended position. Chalcolithic people worshipped the mother goddess and the bull.

The Iron Age and the Megaliths

Iron was used in India in about 1200 to 1000 BCE, with early evidence from sites like Hallur in Karnataka, Malhar in Uttar Pradesh and Atranjikhera. The iron plough and axe helped to clear forests and grow more crops, which supported the rise of the Mahajanapadas. The iron age cultures of the north are linked with Painted Grey Ware (PGW), found in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and linked with the later Vedic age, followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) from about 700 BCE, which belongs to the age of cities and rich trade. In South India, the Iron Age is known by the megaliths, burial monuments made of large stones, such as cists, dolmens and cairns. Sites: Brahmagiri, Hallur and Adichanallur (urn burials, Tamil Nadu).

Comparison of the Ages

Mains Angle: The Importance of the Neolithic Revolution

A question may ask why the shift to agriculture is called a revolution. You can answer in four points. It gave a stable food supply, so the population grew. It led to settled villages, houses and the storage of grain. It encouraged new crafts such as pottery and weaving. It created the idea of property and social differences, and so it led to the beginning of the Indus cities. At the same time, agriculture brought new problems, such as diseases from animals and the dependence on rain.

Practice Questions

• Q1. Which age is known for the use of microliths? Answer: The Mesolithic age.
• Q2. Where is the Chalcolithic site Inamgaon located? Answer: Maharashtra.
• Q3. Which pottery is linked with the later Vedic age in the Ganga-Yamuna doab? Answer: Painted Grey Ware.
• Q4. Which Neolithic site in Kashmir has pit dwellings? Answer: Burzahom.

Use these questions as a quick test after reading, and note the places where you made a mistake in your notebook for a second revision after one week.

How to Remember

• Use the sequence of tools: Hand-axe (Palaeolithic), Microlith (Mesolithic), Polished celt (Neolithic), Copper (Chalcolithic), Iron plough (Iron Age).
• Attach one site to every age: Bhimbetka, Bagor, Mehrgarh, Inamgaon, Hallur.
• Remember the "firsts": Foote found the first Palaeolithic tool (1863); Mehrgarh has the earliest agriculture; Koldihwa has early rice.

Continue with our notes on the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Vedic Period.

Quick Revision

• Palaeolithic: hunter-gatherers, hand-axes; Bhimbetka paintings.
• Mesolithic: microliths, animal domestication; Bagor.
• Neolithic: agriculture and pottery; Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Koldihwa.
• Chalcolithic: copper; Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe; Inamgaon, Daimabad.
• Iron Age: PGW and NBPW in the north; megaliths in the south.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Who discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India?

Robert Bruce Foote found the first Palaeolithic hand-axe at Pallavaram near Chennai in 1863.

What are microliths?

Microliths are very small stone tools used in the Mesolithic age, usually fixed on handles of wood or bone.

Which site is famous for rock paintings of prehistoric India?

Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is famous for its rock shelters and paintings.

Which site has the earliest evidence of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent?

Mehrgarh in Balochistan has the earliest evidence of farming and herding.

What is special about Burzahom?

Burzahom in Kashmir has pit dwellings and a burial where a dog was buried with its master.

Which site shows early rice cultivation in India?

Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh is known for the early evidence of rice cultivation.

What is the Chalcolithic age?

It is the age when people used copper along with stone tools, from about 3000 to 1000 BCE.

Which is the largest Jorwe culture site?

Daimabad in Maharashtra is the largest Jorwe culture site.

What are megaliths?

Megaliths are burial monuments made of large stones, common in South India in the Iron Age.

What is Painted Grey Ware?

It is a fine grey pottery with black designs, found in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and linked with the early iron age and the later Vedic period.

What is the Neolithic Revolution?

It is the change from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled life, a term used by V. Gordon Childe.

When did iron come into use in India?

Iron was in use in India from about 1200 to 1000 BCE.